phonemic additions /h/ allophones [ç] [x] /l/ loss environments cluster simplification initial /g/, /k/ r > Ø vowel reduction

assibilation /d/ > /eth/ environ. spelling pronunciations Great Vowel Shift /æ/ > /a/ back vowel change new diphthongs

spelling reform -n plurals comparative and superlative thee/ye strong vs. weak verbs inflections "do" auxilliary